ࡱ> M mRbjbj==  WWMl82,^ T$>^:W!"y! !SSSSSSS$/V OXS! W!!!S%S%%%!FS%!S%j%+.LyP2 P9/d!.P@PS0 TnP@X%"XP%Protocols and standards (Chapter 60) Explain the need for portability of information e.g. ease of transferring numerical, graphical and textual data between applications. Describe the need for standards for interchanging numerical, graphical and textual data between different hardware and software platforms. Communication standards (Chapter 60) Know of the existence, benefits and limitations of standards. Understand the protocols and addressing mechanisms used to support the World Wide Web. Emergence of standards (Chapter 61) Recognize the existence of de facto standards based on historic precedent and sales success in comparison to formal standards. Communications Software p.326 Typical features you would expect from Communications Software include: - Direction of data flow - Routing the signal to and from modem etcDialling telephone numbers (dialup software)Speed of transmitting dataError correctionProgramming macrosConducting multiple sessionsSetting up private functions such as e-mail, BBS, conferencingMethod of transmission - handling parameters, protocols and handshakingType of parity used. The rules and procedures used for allowing computers to communicate with each other is called the communications protocol. Speed of transmission (P.326) The range of frequencies that can be accommodated on a particular telecommunications medium is called its bandwidth - the difference between the highest and lowest frequency that can be accommodated on a single frequency. Digital TV. There are two common types of bandwith called Baseband (see p.326) Broadband (see p.326) The speed at which data is sent is expressed as the baud rate  Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) most corporations use intranets for voice, private-line services and data each of which may be based on different technologies. ATM can seamlessly and dynamically switch voice, data, images and video between users. Promises to tie LAN (lower speed protocols) with WANs (higher speed). ATM parcels information - requires fibre-optics Modems p.326 A modem is necessary on non-digital networks because traditional telephone systems were designed to carry analogue not digital signals. We can expect all telephone cabling to be digital in the very near future. MODulation is the process of converting digital signals into analogue form. DEModulation is the process of converting analogue signals into digital form. Modem Speeds are measured in bits per second (bps) or baud rates - 2400, 9600, 14,400 Physically modems can be inside or outside the computer. Modems often come with the following features Error control - checking poor telephone lines at high speeds, request retransmission where problems occurData compression e.g. V.42bis supports compression 4:1 text and bitmapped graphicsCompatibility with other modems e.g. Hayes AT command set Direction of transmission p.327  Handshaking is using procedures and standards to establish communications between two computers or between a computer and a peripheral device. Serial and parallel transmission p.327 Serial transmission Binary signals representing data are transmitted one after the other Normally used except for very short connections between a peripheral and a computer Parallel transmission Data bits are communicated as groups in parallel Quicker than sending serially only possible over short distances good for high speed devices (backing store)  PACKET SWITCHING NETWORKS Messages are divided into data packets, which are then directed through the network to their destination under computer control.P.329 DIGITAL AND ANALOGUE TRANSMISSION.  Much of the public switched telephone network (pstn) uses digital transmission techniques, but some local connections to homes and businesses still use analogue signals. Arranging bits of data for transmission Asynchronous transmission Bytes are transmitted one at a time, where each string is framed by control bits (start, parity and stop bits) When a sending device transmits characters at irregular intervals e.g keyboard device - transmitting asynchronously Synchronous transmission Several characters at once in blocks, no start or stop bits Transmitting large volumes of data at high speeds Telecommunications standards and protocols. P.327 The drive towards open systems Historically Data Communications has always had to deal with problems of INCOMPATIBLE standards. A solution to this i.e. to have systems that can communicate to any other systems (open) is of prime importance. The HUGE GROWTH in the use of data communications has been made possible by the use of some common standards. Common standards lead to open systems which allows users to use components from more than one manufacturer. (Remember Plug-and-Play, TWAIN). It is unattractive to users to be restricted to particular systems. There is a need for information to be PORTABLE - i.e. the ability of a program or system to be used on different computer hardware. Commercial systems often remain in use far longer than the original hardware and will be adapted or ported to new types of hardware e.g. UNIX, COBOL. Software packages traditionally will only work on particular hardware platforms (attempts HTML and Java)Need to be able to IMPORT/EXPORT text, numbers, graphics data between applications - to avoid any re-entry or editing of data - objects or pictures. Protocols Communications protocols are a standard set of rules describing the transfer of data between devices, typically to Control - identify each device in the communication pathSecure the attention of the other deviceVerify the correct receipt of a transmitted messageVerify a message requires retransmission because it cannot be correctly interpretedPerform recovery when errors occur DE Jure standards De Facto standards - these are established by the fact that a certain manufacturer dominates the market e.g. Intel processors and Microsoft software. Examples of De Facto standards: ACSII QWERTY keyboards (why don't we adopt a different layout?) Light switches (down is on in Britain but off in America) Windows and DOS (see case study p.328-329) ISO (International Standards Organisation) and Open System Interconnect (OSI) (p.114) In 1978 the ISO issued a model of network protocols called Open System Interconnect (OSI) allowing computers of different origins regardless of manufacture to be linked CCITT) Is a UN body setting telecommunication standards, with headquarters in Geneva. Standards apply to modems, fax and networks. V series of standards relate to equipment covered on telephone lines X series of standards cover digital packet transmission Examples (Learn These!!) V.32bis is the CCITT protocol for 14400 bps modem V.34 is the CCITT protocol for 28800 bps modem V.42bis data compression protocol The X.25 is the CCITT protocol for packet switching networks (p.131) Divides message into packets Error checking and re-transmission if necessary Addressing format allowing international transmission Control of transmission. The growth of de facto standards (P.326) Standards of protocols did not arise naturally, because as with much of IT, things just grew out of sales - so were in fact driven by commercial and political needs- UNIX, Apple, IBM clones etc. Standards Authorities have been set up after the event. Examples of this include Kodak Photo CD formats for representing graphics data and the PostScript language developed by the Adobe Corporation for laser printers. The commercial success of these has led to other companies using the same standard for similar equipment. This is sometimes called a de facto standard since it is accepted simply because it is in wide use. An alternative to copying data is to embed an object created by one application in another. This too requires an agreed standard between the two applications and again, as standard for this is imposed on Windows applications by the operating system which is responsible for Object Linking and Embedding (OLE ). Advantages and Disadvantages of Standards + There is a wider marketplace for computers that comply with standards. + Standards allow the development of "open systems". - Some major manufacturers have the power to dictate "de facto" standards. - Standards can slow down technological advancement because standards have to be agreed before changes can be made. Internet protocol p.329 On the Internet, there is every kind of computer, even WAP phones and cable TVs. The Internet would not work without protocols. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) was launched in 1972 by the US Department of Defence. Divides telecommunications into five layers and contains special error-checking software for unreliable networks. This suite of protocols provide the rules governing: Addressing so that each network node has a unique address Routing so that data can flow through the network from the source to destination Data format so that data packets can be recognised and reassembled at their destination Error control so that errors in transmission can be detected and corrected. Software and hardware that complies with the TCP/IP protocols will work on the Internet. HTTP is the standard for requesting and receiving HTML pages FTP allows files to be transferred over the Internet POP3 allows e-mail to be transferred. Addressing Mechanisms on the WWW p.329 IP Addresses - every host has a unique IP address of 4x3 numbers e.g. 123.456.789.987 Domain - because the IP address is difficult to remember, they are translated into a domain name, which identifies the organisation at which the computer is located - e.g. bbc.co.uk URL (Uniform Resource Locator) - is a web page address e.g. http://www.bbc.co.uk The first part of the URL specifies the protocol to be used for connection to the server. Protocols include: http:// - Hypertext Transfer Protocol https:// - HTTP for web sites with secure servers (used for e-commerce sites) ftp:// - File Transfer Protocol (allows access to FTP sites, where files can be downloaded/uploaded) www - indicates the part of the Internet to be used, in this case the World Wide Web bbc - this is the first part of the domain (called the sub-domain) co - this is the top level domain. There are many top-level domains and these are being added to, to cope with the increasing demand for domain names: .co.uk - British commercial .com - commercial (mainly US or international) .org (non-profit organisation) .edu (American University) .ac.uk (British University .sch.uk (British school) uk - this is the country identifier. All countries (except the US) have one. For example: .uk - UK .jp - Japan .de - Germany .fr - France  HYPERLINK "http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/Topics/15.htm" http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/Topics/15.htm Notes from  HYPERLINK "http://ujimaflip.aston.ac.uk/Connected/index.htm" \t "_blank" connected - the Intenet encyclopedia about the OSI seven layer model.  HYPERLINK "http://www.eeng.dcu.ie/~murphyj/tc2/dc2000/sld004.htm" http://www.eeng.dcu.ie/~murphyj/tc2/dc2000/sld004.htm HTML slideshow about protocols and standards. Starts off well but review it yourself - 399 slides!  HYPERLINK "http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=defacto" http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=defacto Brief online dictionary definition for "de facto standards." May be useful for revision?  HYPERLINK "http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/saleem/D51-notes/node9.html" http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/saleem/D51-notes/node9.html brief notes about international standards agencies. Some useful examples of de jure standards. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1996 & 1997 (2 marks) What is the difference between serial and parallel transmission of data? Analogue is a continuous wave signal which must be sampled. Digital is discrete data i.e. pattern of 1s and 0s. (best explained using a diagram) 2 1996 (4 marks) A particular user owns a desk-top micro-computer and a compatible lap-top micro-computer and regularly needs to transfer files between the two machines. As an alternative to using disks to transfer the data, the user wishes to purchase a hardware link and software package to perform this task. This type of software is often called a lap-link package. Describe TWO software features which such a package should provide to make the data transfer easier for the user Possible features:- Transfer a large number {e.g. exceeding DOS limit} of selected files via a cable at high speed (3 megabytes per min) Transfer multiple directories at once into a replicated structure (2) Reconcile differences in files and only updated if flagged e.g. latest copy by time/date stamp (2) Any 2@2 to a maximum of 4 1997.6 (10 marks) With the growth in computer systems being purchased for use on networks, there is a greater need for manufacturers to conform to standard protocols. (a) What are protocols and why are they required? (4) (a) Protocols: Accept either a 2-2 or 3-1 split (either way). Candidates must address both what and why for 4 marks. What are protocols: set of rules (1) Any 1 from : covering standards for physical connection, cabling, mode of transmission, speed, data format, error detection, error correction Why protocols: to allow equipment from different suppliers to be connected (1) , to encourage development of more open systems (1) 1998.1 (3 marks) Modems are commonly used for data transmission. Explain why modems might be required. Data stored on computer systems is normally digital (1), Some data links between systems are analogue (1), telephone lines (1), Modem performs translation between digital and analogue (1) 1999.9 (adapted) An IT consultant wrote in a trade journal: The growth in technologies such as personal computers (PCs), the world wide web and wide-area networkshas only come about because manufacturers and suppliers of network hardware and software have adopted standard communications protocols. The OSI seven-layer model has been a key factor in this development... Discuss this statement. Particular attention should be given to: the meaning of communications protocols and why they are required; the benefits and limitations of standards. Illustrate your answer with specific examples. Quality of language will be assessed in this answer. Max 6 marks for explanation of protocols and why they are required.Max 6 marks for explanation OSI seven layer model (Do not list all seven layers).Max 6 for explanation of the benefits and limitations of standards.4 marks are available for the quality and coherence of the candidate's argument. (P) Explanation of protocols and why they are required. maximum 6 Protocols are sets of rules/conventions defining how systems communicate with each other (1)Covering:-cabling (1), transmission mode (1), speed of transmission (1), data format (1),Error detection (1), error correction (1), web addresses (1)Allowing any equipment or systems using same protocol to be connected (1) (B) Benefits and limitations of standard: maximum 6 Need for international forum to agree standards (2,1,0)Wider marketplace for products complying with standards (2,1,0)Potential of standards to slow developments waiting for standards to change to accommodate new developments (2,1,0)Ability of major manufacturers to dictate global standards i.e. de-facto standards (2,1,0)Easier exchange of files between different platforms (2,1,0) June 2002.2 A graphic designer makes use of a particular hardware platform and particular software packages. Her clients often send her files produced on computer systems that are incompatible with hers. One solution for the designer is to use emulation software. Describe one advantage and one limitation the designer will have if she pursues this solution. (4 marks) (qu 2 ICT5) NB: Second mark is dependent on the first being awarded; however an explanation on its own can be credited. Advantage: access to more file types (1) that might be specific to particular software that is not available on her system (1) allows her to use her own existing hardware (1) meaning she does not have to invest in further hardware that may be of limited use( 1 ) cheaper in the short term (1) she can decide if she wants to invest in a new system at a later date (1) possible access to other hardware (1) which may only be developed for the' other' platform (1) access to both platforms (1) user has advantages of both sets of operating systems available at once/accessible through a simple mouse click (1) able to provide a service to a wider client base (1) as she does not have to insist on files being provided in a restricted number of types (1) Limitation: lack of functionality (1) there may be functions missing she needs in order to be productive (e.g. lack of printer support) (1) speed issues (1) the emulator may run too slowly to be of practical use (1) resource issues (1) the software takes up space on the hard disk of her existing system that may reduce the speed of her own system/ will have to buy software licences for applications to run under the emulator(l) she may still need to convert the files (1) if suitable software is not available under the emulator(l) Spring 2003.3 Describe two distinct ways in which standards can arise within the ICT industry. (4 marks) Formal/ de jure standards (1) set by professional bodies/ governments/ official bodies and then passed on to the industry (1) De facto standards (1) arisen through historic precedent/ sales success i.e. through popular choice (1) Do not credit examples unless supported by some sort of justification as above. Examples given must be ICT examples in order to gain credit. Spring 2003.4 Hardware and software are often described as being compatible with other hardware or software. a. Describe the term compatible in this context. (2 marks) b. An emulator can sometimes be used to achieve compatibility. Describe one advantage and one limitation of the use of emulation. (4 marks) a. different hardware manufactures produce machines which all support the same software/data files (1) applications are not dependent on particular hardware configurations (1) e.g. processor type, memory configuration, VDU configuration (1) compatible hardware refers to those systems which confirm to a particular minimum hardware specification (1) similar architecture/ instruction set (1) peripheral devices can be used on compatible systems (1) compatible software refers to software that is able to share data/ work with other software packages (1) b. advantage: access to more file types (1) that might be specific to particular software that is not available on the system (1) allows the use of existing hardware (1) so do not have to invest in further hardware that may be of limited use (1) cheaper in the short term (1) so can decide if there is a need to invest in a new system at a later date (1) possible access to other hardware (1) that may only be developed for the other platform (1) access to both platforms (1) user has advantages of both sets of operating systems available at once/accessible through a simple mouse click (1) disadvantage: lack of functionality (1) there may be functions missing that are required in order to be productive (e.g. lack of printer support) (1) speed issues (1) the emulator may run too slowly to be of practical use (1) resource issues (1) the software takes up space on the hard disk of an existing system that may reduce the speed of the original system (1) licensing issues (1) will have to buy software licences for applications to run under the emulator (1) may still need to convert the files (1) if suitable software is not available under the emulator (1) A2 Module 5 (ICT5) TOPIC 14.10 Portability of data  HYPERLINK "http://www.nchadderton.zen.co.uk/front.htm" http://www.nchadderton.zen.co.uk/front.htm Page  PAGE 7 of  NUMPAGES 10 7\ kl  q z + . 12RSTc  !󿲿ѩѩѩјѩэѩѩѩʩj5CJUmHnHuB*CJmH phsH !jB*CJUmHnHphu5B*CJph5B*CJmH phsH 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