ࡱ> M %Ubjbj== !WWUPlFFFFFFFZBBB8z$ZvEfF\:qqqDDDDDDD$F HbEFqqqqqEFF0Eq.FFDqD!%R?FFC: ׭lZBCC,FE0vEC^IS4^ICZZFFFFData Understand that data may require translation or transcription prior to entry into the system. This can affect the accuracy of the data. Discuss the impact of quantity and quality of data on the method of data capture together with the control and audit mechanisms required to manage data capture. Information Understand management information needs: the concept of relevance and methods of interpretation. Understand that information has many characteristics and can be classified in many ways. Examples include: Source  internal, external, primary, secondaryNature  quantitative, qualitative, formal, informalLevel  strategic, tactical, operationalTime  historical, current, futureFrequency  Real- time, hourly, daily, monthlyUse  planning, control, decisionForm  written, visual, aural, sensoryType  disaggregated, aggregated, sampledDiscuss the value of information in aiding the decision making process. Understand the difference between internal and external information requirements. Describe the characteristics of good information and delivery, e.g.relevant; accurate; complete; user confidence; to right person; at right time; in right detail; via correct channel of communication; understandable. Describe the advantages and characteristics of good information within an applications context. Effective presentation Understand the effect that the method and style of presentation has upon the message/design in relation to the intended audience. DATA Are facts, events, and transactions that have been recorded. They are the raw materials from which information can be produced. Data can be observed, counted, measured, weighed recorded etc. Generated during day to day activities of the organisation. INFORMATION Is data that have been processed in such a way as to be useful to the recipient. The value of information derives from the value of the change in decision behaviour caused by the information being available minus the cost of producing the information. Data that has been filtered and organised in some way to be more meaningful to people who use it. Information can be used to fulfil legal requirements, to provide background knowledge, provide decision support , provide enquiry processing, aid analysis of trends KNOWLEDGE Is the ability to make good use of information. INFORMATION Chapter 42 Computers as an Information Source p.232 In the past, computers were used for applications like payroll processing or scientific uses where their ability to perform rapid and accurate calculations made them popular. Nowadays, computers are increasingly being used as an information source. In business, information provided by a computer can be used to aid decision-making. Sources of Information p232 Information is received from both internal and external sources. external information is the spoken, written or printed communication that an organisation sends to other organisations or people. GENERAL EXTERNAL INFORMATION includes opportunities and constraints revealed from such things as ... government policies, financial trends, customer needs and preferences, technology and manpower developments, supplier resource availability and cost trends, news, events, public opinions OPERATIONAL EXTERNAL INFORMATION is information required to complete the day to day tasks of the business functions (i.e. in sales, finance, production..) liaison with suppliers and customers, liaison with advertisers, government, auditors, solicitors INTERNAL INFORMATION is generated from the organisation going about its daily business... receipt of sales order by accounts, processing of new customer details, checking availability of stock, customers sales details to personnel, finished goods stock availability to sales, production schedules and reports, employee job time cards to accounts and personnel PRIMARY - is first hand information, gathered by the user e.g. using a questionnaire, using an IS to acquire information on production levels, sales to date etc. Data Warehousing should be considered here. SECONDARY - is information that already exists due to other peoples research e.g. from books, journals, government figures, data on rivals (competitors) sales in the same market (collected by independent source i.e. newspaper). The workforce handles operational data by processing transactions...this generates operational information...which is processed to provide information. for the supervisory or operational management...this is processed to provide information. for the middle or tactical management...and so on.. Levels of Information p232 1. Operational Information is a record of all events and transactions within an organisation. A record must be kept of all payments and orders. This includes payroll records and stock management. 2. Tactical Information is information commonly used by middle management. They need to know how fast particular products are selling, how quickly stock levels can be refreshed and at what times of the week a store is most busy. 3. Strategic Information is needed by senior management. The leaders of an organisation need to plan for the future and they need accurate information about economic and environmental factors, social trends and so on to decide what direction the business should take. Information can be used to build computer models to forecast the effects of certain changes. Quality of Information P.232 ACCURATE - otherwise poor decisions might be made and there might be a loss of confidence. (Information might come with a probability factor e.g. weather reports) RIGHT LEVEL OF DETAIL (some information is too detailed and this can lead to "information overload" but other information might not be detailed enough e.g. school league tables) USER CONFIDENCE - does user have confidence in the information. or do they mistrust it? UP-TO-DATE and TIMELY Is it sent to the right person at the right time? Transactions systems such as booking systems are important examples. BRIEF Is delivered in the right detail i.e. Relevant for purpose otherwise it is useless. Having too much detail can result in overlooking vital facts. (an "exception report" lists only items on which action is needed) RIGHT FORMAT (e.g. is certain information more understandable if presented in a chart?) Via the CORRECT CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION e.g. Written reports graphs or visual displays Sheets of figures TV/Video Telephone conversation transfer of data via computer etc. UNDERSTANDABLE/ clear to the user COST is not more than its worth. The nature of information Qualitative Information is written information which is often subjective, includes opinions e.g. New, best, improved rice Quantitative Information is objective factual information, normally numerical e.g. the rice weighed 500g, it cost 59p etc. Formal Information is precise and exact information such as can be found in reports, University prospectus, payment demands, instructional documents. Informal Information is general information which tends to have a more chatty style such as invitations to buy products, council newsletters. Timing of Information Historic - e.g. past production levels Current - e.g. current production levels Future - e.g. predictions of future production levels Channels of communication (p.234) How well (and how quickly) the information flows through the organisation depends on: The amount of information The number of levels it has to pass through Whether it has to go from one department to another Methods used to communicate (e.g. e-mail, fax, memo, verbal) The urgency of the information Staff competence (e.g. do staff know how to access the information) Quality of equipment Use of information Information needed to formulate plans and consider alternative courses of action...it will include forecasts (such as demand forecasts or forecasts of increases in prices and wages), estimates of environmental conditions, such as likely actions by competitors or possible legislation. Often based on historical data. Information, which provides a comparison between actual results and the plan. Control information cannot exist without a plan or target. Feedback is important here. It must not arrive too late to be of any use and if the person receiving it does not rely on it because it they suspect it of being inaccurate then it is no use. Decision see notes on DSS Types of information Detailed Information based on all the data. Aggregated Summary information bringing data together from a variety of sources - e.g. summary sales information for all the branches in a supermarket chain. Sampled Information based on a sample of all data. An example would be a Europe wide weather report based on temperatures in each of the capital cities. Detailed data is available over a wide area of Europe but the nature of the information required means that a restricted sample of all possible data is sufficient. Frequency of information Real Time Real time information will be based on current data in a transaction processing application such as a supermarket. The information could be changed as the underlying data changes in real time. An example could be the percentage of holidays that have vacancies. Real time information is most useful at the operational level. Periodic Information can be classified according to the frequency with which it is produced - e.g.; annual report, quarterly sales report. The longer the period, the more likely it is that the information will be strategic rather than operational. Methods of monitoring/improving information flow are: Track individual documents through different stages of processing. Interview end-users to see if they are getting the right information at the right time. Issue questionnaires Effective Presentation P234 237  HYPERLINK "http://www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.html" www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.html The way in which information is presented will also affect the value that the audience put on it. If the presentation is unplanned or unprofessional then this may reduce its impact. There are some situations where informal presentation of information is acceptable in brainstorming sessions for example. Mostly however the way that the information is presented will affect the audience's perception of the message. If a company is trying to attract new investors, then a well planned presentation in a comfortable auditorium, making use of screen projectors to display computer generated slides will impress an audience of potential investors better than hand-drawn diagrams on a flip chart presented in a cold, run-down hall. A slick, fast moving presentation emphasising confidence in the company prospects would also help. However a local charity trying to raise money for a good cause might shy away from a high-tech presentation because they could perceive that the intended audience would be alienated by it. When managers are particularly keen to get their information across, they need to think about the appropriate means of presentation. Popular methods are: Computer Printouts Presentation Graphics DTP Videoconferencing Intranet The method of presenting information, the media used and the surroundings should be chosen with the audience in mind and may in fact be just as important as the information that is being presented Graphs and Charts p235 It is important to choose the right type of chart. Pie-charts, for example, are less effective if there are too many segments. Line graphs are a good way of showing trends in sales figures. Printed Presentations p.236 Bullet points are a good way to achieve clarity Avoid overuse of fonts and clipart Use graphs and charts to illustrate numeric information Avoid ALLCAPS Marketing Information p.236-237 Information is a commodity that can be sold. Companies gather information about their customers by: Adding details to a database whenever a customer makes a purchase or requests a catalogue The warranty card can be used for marketing purposes Encouraging visitors to register on a web site Companies can buy mailing lists from related organisations (companies that are not direct competitors might share their lists) DATA Chapter 43 GIGO Remember that garbage in = garbage out. Errors can occur at all stages of processing, especially during data entry and whenever there is human intervention. "Transpositional" errors involve getting numbers the wrong way round e.g. keying in 58762 instead of 57862. "Transcribing" means copying down data from a human source. "Verification" means checking to see that something is accurate, e.g. entering a password twice and comparing the two versions to spot errors. Verification involves double-checking something. "Data Validation" involves checks being made to prevent errors. Validation checks are usually built into the system. Example: A web site asks you to enter your e-mail address to register. You realise that you can enter anything@anything.com and the site accepts this as a valid e-mail address simply because it contains an @ symbol. However, the site then tells you that your password has been e-mailed to you. This is a problem because you gave a false e-mail address and, therefore, you will not receive the password. This web site is performing both a validation check and then also a verification check. Data Capture Wherever possible, data should be captured directly in order to avoid mistakes being made in entering the data. Bar code readers and magnetic stripe readers are good examples of direct data capture methods. Bar Codes p.238-239 Although there is an initial investment in hardware that has to be made, bar codes have such great benefits that they are increasingly being very widely used. It is estimated that a 2% investment leads to a 6% saving in costs. Bar code readers are very accurate. As little as one mistake per 100,000 transactions. Information can be passed to a MIS from barcode transactions, enabling them to make judgements about the effect of repositioning items in the store, identify fast or slow selling items, historical data showing seasonal fluctuations in trade in certain items, etc. Bar coding is used in supermarkets but increasingly it is also being used in many other areas, such as: Warehousing (robotic cranes which stack shelves know exactly where to place goods by reading the barcode) Transport (packages are bar coded so that the precise location of any package can be known at any time) Manufacturing (data can be obtained on work in progress to improve production efficiency) Marketing (bar coded multiple choice questionnaires) Medical (bar codes are used to identify blood and other samples) Libraries (The bar code updates the computer system which can say whether or not a book is available) In supermarkets, bar codes pass information to a computer system. If the customer has a "loyalty card", the supermarket can make a profile of which items a shopper buys and when. In some supermarkets, there is "self-scanning". This can enable the company to know at exactly what time each item was put in the trolley. It can also detect which items were picked up and then put back. EDI - Electronic Data Interchange P.239 Business data e.g. orders and invoices can be sent from one firm's computer system to that of another firm. This means that data does not need to be keyed in twice. The transmission is virtually instantaneous and, therefore, the supplier's system can check for availability and respond with confirmation. When students sit exams, the results can now be sent directly to the schools rather than being posted. Smart Cards P.240 Cash loaded smart cards, such as Mondex, could replace cash. The card could be used as a form of ID. It could also be used to monitor where the holder goes, everything s/he buys and when. This could have privacy implications. Keying in Data P240 The drawbacks of manually typing in data is that it is slow, it inevitably leads to errors and there is the risk to health of people typing at a VDU all day. Data verification systems such as batch processing can be used to improve accuracy. SAMPLE 1 (8 marks) Many retail organisations have developed large databases of customer information by buying data from each other. Describe TWO possible uses these organisations could make of the data they purchase. (4 marks) Some customers may object to data held on them by one organisation being sold to another organisation. Describe some of the arguments which either of these retail organisations may use to justify this practice. (4 marks) Mailshot targeting on specified criteria or socio-economic grouping. Customer purchasing analysis to improve purchasing or manufacturing quotas. Customer purchasing profiling to predict specific likely product needs of customer and thus target. Any 2 @2 Improvements in analysis of predicted demands means that stock is always available via distribution Improvements in analysis of predicted demands means that stock is always available via manufacture Customer profiling is the only way to know the customer personally and his/her needs as in the days of the local shop. Any 2 @2 SAMPLE 2 (4 marks) A manager uses a bespoke application which cannot produce reports in the exact format required but does allow the export of information to a spreadsheet. The manager uses this facility to export the information, improves the layout of the information and produces several graphs. This takes her several days. On presenting the reports to colleagues she is questioned over the accuracy of the information as many of the figures appear to be out of date. Describe how this problem may be overcome. Data ageing during the improvement stage. Overcome by setting up the model first with test data, do export at final stage. 1998.8 (10 Marks) A sales manager claims that he is always provided with quality management information from his Management Information System. With the aid of examples where appropriate, describe five characteristics of good information. 2001.4 With the aid of appropriate examples, explain the difference between formal and informal information flows. (6 marks) SAMPLE 3 (6 marks) A college collects data from incoming students which includes the students subjects and grades at GCSE level. These grades are processed and are used to predict an expected grade at A-Level. It is found that some of the grades given by students are less than accurate. Describe methods of data capture and entry which minimise this problem. Clerical controls and validation including production of grades documents direct data transfer on disc from the feeder school EFT from the exam board. (2 for each if expanded) 1998.6 (12 Marks) The nature, quantity and quality of data often dictates the method by which it must be captured for use within an IT system. (a) Name four different methods of data capture. (4) (b) For each method: (i) give an example of the type of data which may be captured (4) (ii) state the reason why this method is particularly appropriate (4) 2002. 1 Describe with the aid of an example, the meaning of formal information flow within an organisation. (3 marks) A company keeps records of its sales and uses a Management Information System to produce reports for its sales personnel and for its shareholders. a. Describe two differences between the information needed by sales personnel in their day-to-day work, and by shareholders reading the annual report. (4 marks) b. Describe, with the aid of an example, one characteristic of good quality information that might be produced by this system. (3 marks) a. 2 marks per point, max 2 points - 2 x (2,1,0) Level (operational/strategic) Timing (current/historical) Frequency (short/long-term) Use Type b. 1 for characteristic, max 1 for description and up to 2 for example 1 x (3, 2, 1, 0) Relevant Accurate Complete User Confidence To right person At right time In right detail (appropriate format - shows the correct level of detail for the recipient) Via correct channel of communication Understandable (appropriate format - shows in an appropriate style e.g. graphs for shareholders may communicate more) June 2003.6 Companies rely on their information systems to provide good quality information. (a) Identify three different categories of users information systems, and state the level at which they operate. 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