ࡱ> M qbjbj== !WWiknl9998:4F:$tzv;(;:;;;JJJyyyyyyy$| 2~\zJHJJJzaO;; .zaOaOaOJ.;;yaOJyaOHaOTnhGs;j; E49J<r$GsDz0tz#s$~ OX~GsaODescribe the nature and purpose of a database and how it works. Chapter 17 Understand that data needs to be organised in a relational database to allow for effective updating and retrieval. Chapter 19 Understand how data can be retrieved to produce meaningful information. Recall the relevant advantages of databases over flat file information storage and retrieval systems. Chapter 18 Select and justify appropriate file and relational database structures for particular applications. What is a Database? P.91 A database is a collection of data. Consider how the following might use them SchoolPoliceHospitalSupermarketBusinessDoctorFlat-File or card-index Databases - contain one file. The records can only be accessed in a limited number of ways, and the number of fields in a record will be limited. These can quickly become unwieldy. A Relational Database is designed to handle data in TABLE form and a single database is likely to contain a number of separate but related ENTITIES. Problems when using flat-file applications (AppleWorks or LotusWorks) P.95 ProblemDescriptionExamplesData InconsistencyThe same data appears differently throughout the system. Different software programs are used. Changes to data made at different times.John Smith in English database but J Smith in Mathematics database. Updated every Thursday in English, every other Friday in Mathematics.Data RedundancyThe same data is duplicated throughout the system. Updates an enormous problem. Errors are compounded.Imagine John Smith in every school department. Time is wasted. Computer memory is inefficiently used.Data DependenceAny change in data format or structure requires a change in all the programs that access the data.If John Smith changes form. New entrants to school all personal data in all databases.Data lacks Integrity.Cant be trustedIs inconsistently presented in various parts of the database. Not always up to date. Not always accurateDatabase structure is inflexible Difficult without lots of work to create reports using information from different databases.Consider if all departmental databases are separate how would we get regular assessment data? effort and attainment grades. In the past these were written onto lists and a clerical assistant spent days inputting them in or the exercise was considered impractical.A Bank using a Flatfile Different Information Systems have grown up over time, often with their own software programs and ways of doing things. Information is duplicated throughout the system; updates may occur at different times, some errors remain undetected. Costs to run the system are driven up because of clerical time needed to input data and check for errors, it is very difficult to combine information.   A RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (RDBMS) Chapter 18 The INDUSTRY STANDARD. The only data structure in an RDBMS is the RELATION itself. Each record within a well-designed table will have a KEY FIELD, which is unique to that record. In a RDBMS data is organised into TABLES (ENTITIES) that have a reason or function in their own right. These tables are organised into fields (ATTRIBUTES) P.97 Using these relations can generate REPORTS using data from several tables. In making queries information from different tables can be combined as the tables share common data elements or LINK FIELDS, there may be several relationships from one table to other tables. ADVANTAGES OF USING A RDBMS (P.95) AdvantageDescriptionExamplesSingle Centralised StoreCommon data can be shared to all related tables within the organisation regardless of the software package you are using.STAR (Student Teachers Academic Records) can be shared in Assessment, Timetabling modules.Data Redundancy is reduced if not got rid of.Because there is only one copy of each attribute kept- duplication should be eliminated altogether in a well-designed RDBMSChanges in personal details are changed in STAR only.Data IndependenceEach table can be administered without reference to other tables, although changes will take immediate effect within related information. If a Department changes GCSE board this can be changed once in the Courses Table as long as the Course ID remains the same?Data Integrity.Data should now be up to date, the same throughout, accurate and in general can be trusted.Reports can easily be created with flexible layouts. Easy to set up new relationships and new entities. New tables and reports can be set up as and when required.Effort and Attainment grades can be entered centrally and shared wherever and whenever required.Easier SecurityAll access to data is via a centralised system, a uniform system of security monitoring can be implementedMIS is improvedRather than concentrating on overcoming collection problems can now become creative in generating information.Identify trends, exception reports, Model different scenarios.  HYPERLINK "http://www.greenwood.notts.sch.uk/ICT/AS%20ICT2%20On%20line%20textbook/17%20Databases.htm" http://www.greenwood.notts.sch.uk/ICT/AS%20ICT2%20On%20line%20textbook/17%20Databases.htm Try the examples at  HYPERLINK "http://www.smckearney.com/dbs1/examples/index.php" http://www.smckearney.com/dbs1/examples/index.php Chapter 19 PRODUCING MEANINGFUL INFORMATION QUERIES can be made on relational databases in two common formats. QUERY BY EXAMPLE QBE This is characterised by filling inquiry conditions into empty slots under displayed field information, examples QBEExampleANDJohnson and Personnel to find all the records for people named Johnson who work in PersonnelOR To find all records that contain either New York or San Francisco in the City field make two requests using New Request or Duplicate Request then Find (Use Paste Special to use Index)WILDCARDTo find Gray and Grey type Gr@y in the field, To find McKineh and McKennah type McK*h in the fieldRANGE OF VALUES12:30...17:30 finds records that contain times between 12:30 to 17:30 in that fieldOMIT Records that dont match the request e.g. type description of what you want to omit then click OmitOPERATORSOperators usually include =, <>, <, >, <=, >=, AND, OR, .NOT STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE SQL (A variation of command mode) is the database access standard for relational database management systems (RDBMS) - enabling to exchange files with other databases. The basic structure of a SQL query for retrieving data is SELECT  Identifies the columns or data fields to retrieveFROM Specifies the tables or files from which to retrieve this information.[WHERE ]Restricts the information output to only those records or rows matching a specified condition. QBE is automatically converted by the software to a SQL request.- can be retrieved from any source with standard SQL exchange facility. This way most users never deal with SQL even though database in effect handles SQL language requests. Examples using SQL Selection by Criteria If a Sales rep wants the Name and Address of CUST 1234 in the example given above the SQL statements would take the form SELECT Name, Address FROM CUSTOMER WHERE Number =123 Updating the Database SQL can also change values in the database: for example to give customer 1234 a 10 per cent discount, the following statements may be used UPDATE SALES SET PRICE=PRICE*0.90 WHERE CUST NO=1234 REPORTING WIZARDS and REPORT GENERATORS A wizard or Report Generator is usually the best starting point to construct reports. These will define: - Table Reports Page headers Report Heading Column Headings (Field titles might not be suitable if they are abbreviations) Report Detail - record details from the database Page Summaries - calculated field sub-totals will appear at the end of each page Page footers Report Summary Default Report Summary (quick) report layout - every field in the database and with field names as column headings. Form Reports record by record Label Design SAMPLE REPORTS TABLES for a School system can be written in database standard form. (see p.98) STUDENT(STUDID, Surname, Forename, Address, Sex) STUDENT_TAKES(STUDID, CRSECODE, StaffNo) COURSE (CRSECODE, CrseTitle) STAFF (STAFFNO, StaffName) In this particular case Key fields are underlined. The STUDENT_TAKES table needs a composite key to uniquely identify the course taken by a particular student. QUESTIONS Draw up the following Reports for the tables above (colour in a different colour where information is used from different tables) Report 1 A Student Record Card including personal information, course and staff details. Report 2 A Class list showing student and staff details Report 3 A list showing courses taught by each staff member. Becoming familiar with a RDBMS You should be aware of what attribute, keys, entities, link tables are. You should be able to look at a system and identify problems with it, to do this you really should be able to have an understanding of Normalisation. NORMALISATION (p.271-274) - the aim of all well-designed RDBMS. A step-by-step set of rules by which data is put in its simplest forms i.e. distinct entities and attributes. Thus in a fully normalised RDBMS there will be No data redundancy i.e. no duplicate data All attributes will be independent It will be possible to add new data and entities without a wholesale reorganisation of the database structure. You should be able to easily identify and explain the reasons for a PRIMARY/KEY FIELDS - every record in a file or database must contain at least one field that uniquely identifies that record so it can be retrieved (accessed), updated or sorted. e.g. employee number, NI number , ISBN no., student no., course code etc. You should know why it is necessary to codify data e.g. Save spaceEasier to queryFewer errorsFaster data entry EXAMINATION QUESTIONS Before 1996 this topic was examined at far greater depth at A/S so concentrate on post 1996 questions. 1995.11 (17 Marks) A college information system currently uses three sets of files for its student records, staff records and finance records, each being run separately. The systems manager is keen to introduce a Database Management System (DBMS) based on a relational database, claiming that this will have major benefits for the college. a) By the use of an appropriate example explain what is meant by the term relational database. (5) b) Describe three advantages of a DBMS approach in contrast with the use of independent files. (6) c) During the design of the system a decision is made to restrict the access of different users in different ways. Describe three different restrictions that may be imposed upon different users (6) a) data arranged into 2-D tables (1) At least one of the other tables must contain at least one common attribute (1) Data from more than one table can be extracted and combined together (1) Normalisation (1) here or in part (b) + (1) if fully explained example (1) for showing two tables with a common attribute (1) for showing the link...this must be coded additional alternatives a collection of data organised in such a way that it may be accessed by a variety of applications programs (1) a number of interrelated files (1) tables are not sorted into any order (1) one to many and many to many relationships (1) OR a number of files linked together data is shared between the files plus a detailed and consistent example (b) the sharing of data between applications (2) the maintenance of consistent data (2) the logical independence of data (2) data control and security (2) the ease with which new application (reports or code) can be generated (2) less data duplication (2) (c) different restrictions within the same department (2) read-only access (1) vs edit access (1) field restrictions to some users (2) location and terminal (2) different restrictions between departments (2) control is required so that only authorised users can access (1) example: student record clerical officer cannot access personnel details (1) passwords (1) plus levels of passwords (1) access levels explained (1) any mention of DP Act (1) NOT voice, fingerprint or retina recognition 1994.10 and 1996.10 (16 marks) A companys sport centre uses a database management system to operate a membership and fixture system. Normally, members register for at least three sports, although they can play any of the sports offered by the centre. Fixtures against many other organisations are arranged in a wide range of sports involving a large number of teams. name THREE database files you would expect to find in the system (3) for each of the database files you have named, list the fields required to enable this system to be maintained with minimum redundancy. (6) describe THREE reports which the system might be required to produce (3) the manager of the centre intends to send out personalised letters to each of the members. This is done using the mail-merge facility offered by a word processor in conjunction with the database. Explain how this is achieved. (4) (a) Database file 1:Membership details (1) Database file 2: Coded sports lookup table (1) Database file 3: Fixtures database (1) Database file 4: Other Organisations (1) Database file 5: Results (1) (b) Database file 1:Membership details ... personal data(1) coded (1) sports registered for coded fields (1) to indicate selected teams (1) Database file 2: Coded sports lookup table.... sportcode (1), description Database file 3: Fixtures database.... fixtures (1) storing membership id (1) of those selected for this team this week (1) (c) any valid reports but non-trivial use simple reports - complete membership list, team list, squash league table (1 max. for any number) non-trivial - name and phone number of those selected to play this week, names and addresses of those not responded to subscription notice, names of those who play sport X and sport Y for a given use (1 each) (d) standard text letter (1) fieldnames in letter (1) database of records... one letter per record (1) substitute fields from records in database (1) 1993.2 (4 marks) A bookshop uses an interactive computer database system to store stock details and answer customer enquiries regarding the availability of books. An enquiry for a particular book shows that there should be a single copy remaining in stock. After searching the shelves and stock room the book cannot be found. State and explain TWO possible reasons for this discrepancy. data input must be qualified by an example appropriate to this information system e.g. wrong ISBN (1) none for typing error or vague, unspec. errors initial stock was wrong (1) updates are batch (1) each evening whereas enquiries are interactive (1). Thus ageing of information (1) 1993.11 (14 marks) (a) In a database management system describe, with the aid of examples, what is meant by (6) a data type query by example a query language (b) A particular database which has been used successfully on a standalone system is to be made available to users on a network. Describe a problem which may occur when a number of users access the database at the same time. How could this be overcome? (4) (c) Give TWO examples of how data in a database might be corrupted and for EACH example suggest a way in which corruption might be prevented, or the data recovered. (4) (a) a data type: the specification of the category of the field from the categories offered by the package e.g. date, numeric, logical, character (2) query by example: specification of a search criteria using an example in a pre-formatted way e.g. select name, DOB, postcode from for forename like Pet* a query language: a set of commands which provide a syntax with which to interrogate a database e.g. SQL or Dbase 111 (2) (b)Problem: record or field violation due to multiple access to same record (2) sharing violation on whole database (2) not a multi-user operating system (1) therefore use a multi-user OS (1) users may need different levels of access (1) + some explanation of how this can be done Overcome by ensure database management system supports record and/or file locking (2) ensure database is set to shareable (2) (c) physical damage due to storage medium, control by maintaining regular backup copies (2) deliberate malicious editing; control by more complex passwording system or personnel management (2) accidental incorrect editing; control by enforcing r/o or accounting routines or validation (2) disaster to computer room; control by catastrophe planning with off-site alternative system (2) virus (1) control by anti-virus toolkit (1) 1991.5 (6 marks) You are asked to advise on the purchase of a database management package. Describe the types of information you would need to know about the application before formulating your request. type of datatype of query/access routespredictability of queriesanticipated skill of userssensitivity of datavariability of datavolatility of datavolume of dataoutput formats and volumesoutput destinations e.g. export to another package 1997.7 (12 marks) A college library uses a relational database management system to operate a membership and loans system. Staff and students can borrow as many books as they wish at any given time. (a) Name three database tables that you would expect to find in this system. In each case, identify the columns and keys required to enable this system to be maintained with minimum redundancy. (6) (c)Describe the capabilities of the relational database management system that might be used to identify and output details of overdue loans. (6) (a) Table names (3 x 1) 1 mark for each table names as below Books: { BookNo, Book Title, book category} (Key=1 or 2 relevant others=1 ) Members {MemberNo, Member Name, Phone number, ...} (Key=1 or 2 relevant others=1 but not age) Loans {Book No, MemberNo, LoanDate or return date...} Book & Member No's and loan date (1), Book number = ISBN (OK) (c) To gain full marks a candidate must refer to QBE or SQL & REPORTING: METHOD OF QUERY max. (3) QBE: Named (1) and described (1) and example (1). Typically: Use of query by example to select subset of records from database by giving values to certain fields to specify selection criteria. For an example illustrating this (1). A typical example might be .. OR Field Member No Surname Forename Criteria 99* WE* All members with numbers starting 99 and Surnames starting 'WE' will be selected. SQL: Named (1) and described (1). Typically: A subset of records could be selected from database by using a programming language (1) known as a SQL. For an example illustrating this (1). A typical example might be .. select surname, member no from members where surname is like 'WE*' AND Report Facility: max. (3) particular fields selected for output (1) ,order of records can be specified (1) uses the output from a query(1) idea of linked/multiple tables/queries extensive formatting capability (1),grouping and subtotals can be defined (1) example of a report given (1) 1998.10 (13 marks) A company makes use of a computerised flat file information storage and retrieval system. The company is experiencing problems due to the use of this flat file system. (a) describe three benefits that the company would gain by using a relational database as opposed to a flat file system. (6) (a) Data independence - structure does not affect the programs which access the data i.e. set up time for new applications is reduced Quality of management info. is improved i.e. Info. is more valuable as it is based on a single, comprehensive collection of data Increased productivity i.e. ad hoc reports can be generated to meet particular needs Consistency of data - less data duplication so errors due to discrepancies are reduced Input preparation reduced to single input principle Control over redundancy i.e. updating less time-consuming as data duplication is minimised Integrity of data i.e. DBMS can specify constraints when data is added Greater security of data Centralised control of data More information available to users due to centralisation of data Max 6 1999.5 (6 marks) Database Management Systems provide facilities to extract data from a stored database. (a) Name two common methods of setting up a query. (2) (b) State one advantage and one disadvantage of the two query methods stated in part (a). (4) 2001.2 (4 marks) Give four advantages of using a relational database rather than a flat file system. Independence of data Less (allow no) redundant data/less duplicated data Consistency of data Improved quality of management information "Single input" principle/updating less time consuming Increased productivity as ad hoc reports can be generated to meet particular needs/relationships between tables allow extraction of linked information Allows different access rights for different parts of database 2000 (Sample) A company makes use of a computerised flat-file information storage and retrieval system. The company is experiencing problems due to the use of this flat-file system. Describe three benefits that the company would gain by using a relational database as opposed to a flat-file system. (6) The company currently has three files in use: customer, stock and orders. During conversion to a relational database system these files would need to be changed. Suggest appropriate field names for the three files used. (8) 2002.9 A flat file system is used to store orders taken by an electrical retailer. Examples of records from the file are shown below. CustomerAddressOrder No.Date of Order Item No PriceDescriptionPricePhone No.Sales Staff No.Sales PersonPaul Smith38 Beech Road23454/11/2001456Steam Iron35.4501234-66557778Sue S n eathAnne Chu27 Ash Square23594/11/2001764Toaster19.9901234-89764562Bert JonesAnne Chu27 Ash Square23594/11/2001798Kettle 19.9901234-89764562Bert JonesSean Page19 Elm Lane23615/11/2001461Microwave Oven125.0001234-56748378Mrs SneathJoan Patel16 Oak Close23625/11/2001764Toaster15.9901234-19283778Sue Sneath (a) Referring to the examples above, describe the problems that have occurred by storing the data in a single flat file. (6 marks) (b) The flat file system is to be replaced by a relational database. What structures would be needed in this database to allow for the effective updating and retrieval of data? (4 marks) a. Data is inconsistent (1) Sales person Sue Sneath (1) Description/Price Toaster and New Toaster (1) Data is unnecessary redundant/duplicated/repeated (1) Anne Chu name/address/phone no (1) order number/date order (1) Bert Jones/Sue Sneath( 1) Any 2 x (3, 2, 1, 0) b. Tables/Relations e.g. Customer/Salesperson/Order/Stock Primary Key E.g. Sales Staff No. in Salesperson Table/Item No. in Stock Table/Order No. in Order Table/Allow Customer No. to be added to Customer Table Relationships/links e.g. Use Item no in Order/Use Sales Staff no in Order/Use Customer No. in Order As a foreign key January 2001.5 A company is experiencing difficulties with its computerised flat file information storage and retrieval system. Describe three benefits that the company would gain by converting to a relational database system. (6 marks) 5 Topic 11.3 Organisation of data for effective retrieval Data independence (1) - structure does not affect the programs which access the data i.e. set up time for new applications is reduced (1) Quality of management info. is improved (1) i.e. Info. is more valuable as it is based on a single, comprehensive collection of data (1) Increased productivity (1) i.e. ad hoc reports can be generated to meet particular needs (1) Consistency of data (1) - less data duplication so errors due to discrepancies are reduced (1) Input preparation reduced (1) to "single input" principle (1) Control over redundancy (1) i.e. updating less time-consuming as data duplication is minimised / less storage space required(1) Integrity of data (1) i.e. DBMS can specify constraints when data is added /Greater security of data (1) Centralised control of data (1) More information available to users due to centralisation of data (1) Faster searching (1) for non-key data (1) Improved linking (1) 3 (2, 1, 0) 6 January 2002.5. A database has been used to replace a flat file storage and information system. List four advantages of using a database. (4 marks) Data independence Data can be accessed by several applications Changes in the structure of the database do not affect software that accesses other parts of the database Consistency of data/single input principle Information held more than once is automatically updated by the system Control over redundancy of data Reducing to a minimum any duplicate data Increased productivity as ad hoc reports can be generated to meet particular needs/relationships between tables allow extraction of linked information Allows different access rights for different parts of database June 2001.2 Give four advantages of using a relational database rather than a flat file system. (4 marks) 2. Topic 11.3 Organisation of Data for effective retrieval Independence of data Less (allow no) redundant data/less duplicated data Consistency of data Improved quality of management information "Single input" principle/updating less time consuming Increased productivity as ad hoc reports can be generated to meet particular needs/relationships between tables allow extraction of linked information Allows different access rights for different parts of database January 2003.9 A human resources department stores details of staff in two flat files. One file is used to keep the staff details, and the other file is used to keep records of training undertaken by members of staff. The file structures are shown below. Staff file (Staff-number, Forename, Surname, Address, Home-phone-no., Start-date, Department, Extension-no.) Training File (Staff-number, Forename, Surname, Department, Training-course, Training-date) Underlined fields are the key fields in each file. Describe using examples from the above two files, two problems of these file structures. (6 marks) Design an efficient database structure for the above data. (4 marks) a. Unnecessarily duplicated/repeated/redundant data (1) forename /surname/ department/ Training-date (1) repeated in both files/training records (1) Inconsistency of data (1) forename and surname (and department) / Training-date (1) can be different in files/training records/ files have to be updated separately (1) Any 2 x (3,2,1,0) b. Staff table/entity Training table/entitv /Training Course Table and Staff Training table Removal of forename/ surname /department from Training table or Staff Training table Inclusion of training code Leaving staff number in Training table or Staff Training table Conversion of staff number to foreign key ALLOW mention of conversion to tables if specific tables not mentioned E.g. 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